Processing of rice

Several operations are involved in turning paddy rice to a well milled silky-white rice and making it easier to cook

Small scale processing 
Threshing
This is done to separate paddy from the straw and can done by mechanical devices or by trampling with feet or by pounding the rice ears in the mortal by pestle. Threshing floor should be very clean to prevent contamination by stones, and other particles. The problems associated with this method are: breaking of grains; mixture with stones and sands; low capacity of threshing, it's labour intensive and consumes energy.

Winnowing
This is done after threshing to separate the chaff and other contaminants from the paddy. The mixture is poured into a flat tray where it will be shaken continuously to toss up and blow away chaff and other particles while the remaining contaminants will be removed by hand. Ineffective separation and loss off paddy are the disadvantages of this method.

Drying 
The paddy must be dried to a safe moisture content level. Sun-dry the paddy for 2-3 days on a clean and stone-free platform to avoid contamination by foreign materials.

Parboiling
This is done by soaking rice paddy in water at ambient temperature, followed by boiling or steaming the steeped rice at 100% to gelatinize the starch. The paddy expands, thus making the hull's lemna and palea  to separate. The parboiled rice is then cooled and sun-dried before storage or milling. Parboiling gelatinizes the rice starch, make the rice grains harder and increase the milling yields. It also improves storage, milling, cooking and eating qualities. After parboiling the rice is dried to a safe moisture content before being bagged for storage and transport.

Drying after parboiling
The rice must be dried to 13 - 14% moisture content, and this must be done as soon as possible to avoid growth of mould.

Milling
This is the process of cleaning, dehusking, polishing and grading of rice grains or reduction of the grain size to flour.

Cleaning
Remove all contaminants or foreign substances before the entire milling process

Dehusking
The process of removing husks from the paddy, and can be done with local tools or mechanical devices.

Removal of bran and polishing
This is done to change the appearance of rice grains to white in order to improve the the taste and texture. It can be done locally by mixing the bran rice with the straws of dewatered sugar cane or guinea corn husks and then pound in a mortal until the grains turn white. The sugar cane chaff and guinea corn husks serve as abrasive materials. Rice processing and milling machines are used for large-scale processing, packaging and branding of rice grains.

Rice production in Nigeria

Rice (Oryza sativa) is produced in Nigeria as food and cash crop and there is about 5% annual  increase in the production. Over 10 million people are involved in rice production and processing. Local rice production increased from 4,080,940 MT in 2010 to  6,734,100 MT in 2014 (NAERLS,2014), but as a result of the increasing population and consumption the quantity being produced is not adequate to meet the growing demand. Increasing consumption of rice in sub Saharan region results in increase in the importation with Nigeria  accounting for about 20% of the rice imports. Ban was imposed on rice importation in the country in 1985 and was lifted in 1995 when the local production couldn't meet the demand. Despite increasing prices of imported rice people have continued to demand for it because local rice production is not adequate. Rain fed lowland rice and rain fed upland rice production are the main production systems, others are irrigation system, deep water rice, and mangrove production systems. Rain fed low land rice accounts for about 50% of total rice production in the country.

Soil requirement
Rice grows well in fertile sandy loams and clays with organic matters and good water holding capacity. Rice requires soil with PH range between 5.5 and 7.0 and heavy  soils with higher water holding capacity. Yields are usually  associated with the heavy clay content, organic matter, water retention capacity, good drainage but not excessive drainage. Rice production must be rotated with leguminous crops such as cowpea, soybeans and groundnut.

Land preparation
Land preparation depends on soil type and cropping system. The land can be ploughed once and then harrowed or harrowed twice to provide good tilt and uniform distribution of water. Ridging is not necessary when harrowing is available. Clearing of the bush, packing of thrashes and removal  stumps must have been done before first rain late February or early March. Plough the land with the first rain if the soil is moist enough.

Varieties
There are numerous varieties and selection is based on the environment and market. These are early maturing, medium maturing and late maturing varieties. There are also varieties for different ecosystem such upland ecology, irrigated lowland and mangrove ecology.

Seed treatment
Fungicides and herbicides are used to treat and protect the seeds against soil and seed borne diseases and insects and to ensure good germination. Seed priming should be done to hasten germination and emergence of rice plant. It is done by soaking the seeds in cold water for 12 hours or overnight and then dry for about 2 hours before planting. This is done to get higher percentage of germination, good establishment and vigorous growth that can suppress weeds.

Planting
Rice can be sowing in the field by drilling, broadcasting and dibble sowing. If germination percentage is greater than 80% use the following seed rates: Dibble sowing 50 - 60kg/ha, Drilling 80kg/ha and broadcasting 80 - 100kg/ha. But If the germination percentage is less than 80% increase the seed rates accordingly. Plant rice at dept of 2-4cm. Dibble 5-6 seeds at 25cm between rows and 20cm between plants and later thin to 3 - 4 seedlings two to three weeks after planting. If drilling method his used, drill rows 15 - 20cm apart.

Nursery practice
If nursery is to be used to raise rice seedlings, soak the seeds for 24 hours, incubate them by covering with polythene bags for about 48 hour for the seeds to sprout and then plant in the nursery beds

When to plant rice?
In the forest area, plant middle of March to April after 2 or 3 rains in the forest area
In the savannah area, plant middle of May to middle of June depending on the rainfall

Transplanting
Transplant from the nursery after 21 days and plant 2-3 seedlings per hole at spacing of 20cm between rows and 15 - 20cm between plants. Replace seedlings that die after germination with the remaining seedlings in the nursery bed.

Determining plant population
Plant population is calculated as total area of land divided by the spacing. For example, 25cm by 20cm spacing will give (10000/0.05) X number of plants per stand.

Nutrient requirements
Combination of organic and inorganic plant nutrients is required for optimum production and to sustained rice production for a long time on the same piece of land. Test the soil for nutrient deficiency in order to know the type and quantity of fertilizer that will be applied. Use organic manure, crop residues, green manures, bio fertilizers and soil amendments. Follow proper time and method of nutrient application, and manage water properly. The following doses can be applied under upland (Sahel, Northern Guinea and Southern Guinea Savannah) , forest and swampy rice ecosystems.
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Methods of fertilizer application
Fertilizer can be applied by drilling or broadcasting on moist soil conditions or incorporated into the soil at 10 cm from the base of the plants.

Water requirement
Rice needs adequate supply of water for optimum yields. Annual rainfall of 1200 - 1600mm, evenly distributed during the growing season and seed formation is required. Irrigate the crop at tillering, panicle initiation, flowering, milking and dough stage whenever water is not available. Rice field should be drained few days before harvesting to promote uniform ripening and allow timely harvest.

Weeding 
Timely weeding within 2 - 3 weeks and 5 - 6 weeks after planting is recommended. Chemical weeding can done  with the use of appropriate herbicides.
* Preemergence herbicide are applied to the soil to kill weed seeds.
- Oxidiazone
* Post-emergence herbicides are applied to control weed in the rice field. Examples are:
- Propanil + bentazone
- Propanil + Florourodifen
- Propanil + thiobencarb
- Propanil + 2, 4-D Amine. Remove resistant weeds especially grass-like weeds by hand. Follow the recommended rates and use appropriate herbicides.

Striga infestation
Striga is a serious problem in rice field. It germinates only where rice is planted and commonly found where rice has been grown continuously and where soil nutrients are not well maintained. The symptoms include stunted growth, wilting, yellowing and scorching of leaves, low yields and death in severe cases. The weed produces numerous tiny seeds and can easily be spread from place to place. Striga can be controlled by the use of healthy and striga-free seeds, proper fertilisation with combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers, timely weeding and crop rotation.

Control of pests and diseases
Pest management- The best approach is to practice integrated pest management (IPM) which is a combination of available pest control to keep pest population below economic threshold levels.

Cultural and mechanical method
This includes the use of resistant/tolerant varieties, adjustment of planting date, inter cropping, crop rotation, crop sanitation, efficient water management, use of traps/poison baits, removal and destruction of diseased plants. Rice pests are stem borer, rice army worm, termites, rice bugs, rice gall  midge, birds and rodents. Use bird scaring devices to control birds.

Disease management
Integrated Disease management (IDS) should be practised to keep plant disease and infection below the  economic threshold level. Various methods that can be used are: use healthy and clean seed; plant resistant varieties; destroy alternative hosts plants; select suitable land; practise crop rotation; follow appropriate plant population; timely weeding, proper inspection of the crops and removal of diseased plants.

Disease causal organism are:
* Rice blast, fungus disease caused by Pyrcularia grisea, Magnaporthe grisea
* Brown leaf sport, fungus decrease caused by Helminthosporium oryza
* Bacteria leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris
* Bacteria leaf streak caused by Xanthomonas oryza

Harvesting
Rice is ready for harvesting when the  grains are hard and the plant turning yellow/brown (about 40 days after flowering). Harvest when 80- 90% of the plants have turned brown to avoid shattering, cut the stems with a sickle, tie the panicles in bundles and dry before threshing and storage. Store the paddy in a cool, dry and rodent-proof place. Use actellic dust and phostoxin to control storage pests.

Yields
Yields between 1,200 and 3000kg/ha for swampy/lowland rice and 1000 - 1500kg for upland rice can be obtained with farmers' practices. Improved  varieties yield 5000 - 6000/ha for swampy/lowland rice and 2500 - 3000 for upland rice.

Read rice processing

Soil fertility Management in Organic Farming

The followings are practised to improve soil fertility
* Organic fertilizers
* Green Manures
* Crop rotation
* Land fallowing
* Mulching

Organic fertilizers improve soil structure, increase the level of organic matters and add nutrients to the soil. Examples are farm yard manure, animal dungs, poultry wastes, kitchen wastes and compost.

Compost
Different organic materials are mixed together to achieve a balanced nutrient composition and structure that provides good aeration.

Compost making materials:
* Plant materials - combination of Nitrogen rich and Carbon rich materials
* Animal dungs - Cow and pig dungs are rich in potassium and phosphorus, poultry dropping is rich phosphorus.
* Wood ash - contains K, Na, Mg, Ca and other macro and micro nutrients
* Rock phosphate - binds to the organic materials
* Add small quantity of soil, esp soil rich in clay to improve the quality of the compost.

Green Manure - The practice of incorporating green plants into the soil through ploughing and ridging. The green plants, usually leguminous cover crops are incorporated to the soil to improve soil structure and increase soil fertility. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is commonly used. Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants tap and transform atmospheric nitrogen to plant nutrients. The leaves and twigs of nitrogen fixing plants are rich in nitrogen and other plant nutrients, thus they are a good source of fertilizer.

Old and coarse plant materials may not suitable for management of soil fertility because they don't break down readily, and the nitrogen may be immobilized (not available for plant).

Crop Rotation
Different crops are planted on the same piece of land in sequential seasons. This practice  improves nutrient status of the soil and breaks the cycle of pests and diseases when leguminous spp and resistant spp are planted in sequence with other crops.
* Crop of similar feeding pattern and physiological characteristics should not follow each other.
* Maize, sorghum, rice and cassava should be rotated with soybean, ground nut or melon.

Mulching is the process of covering top soil with plant materials such as leaves, twigs, straw, crop residues and wastes of agro processing to improve soil structure and reduce runoff; increase aeration, organic matter, fertility of the soil and suppress weeds. The mulching materials used for these purposes are biodegradable organic materials.

Selection and use of mulching materials should be done with care to prevent buildup and spread of pests and diseases. Some plant residues harbour destructive organisms. For example, stem borers may survive in the stalks of corns, sugar cane and cotton. Mulching materials may also cause termite infestation.

Land fallowing is when a piece of land is left to rest and restore soil fertility for a period of 3 - 5 years.

Organic Agriculture

Organic agriculture refers to farming practices in which soil, water, plant and animal resources are used to produce good quality food, and the activities are carried out in such a way to stabilize the environment. Production of healthy foods and maintenance of the sustainable environment are the main reasons for going into organic agriculture.

Definitions
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem heath, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activities. It emphasis the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished, where possible agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system (FAO 1999)

Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which enhances agro-ecosystem health, utilizing both traditional and scientific knowledge. Organic  agricultural system relies on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs (IFOAM, 2004).

Organic agricultural production is an overall system of farm management and food production that combines best environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, the preservation of natural resources, the application of high animal welfare standards and a production method in line with preference of certain consumers for products produced using natural substances and processes. The organic production method thus plays a dual societal role, where it is on the one hand provides for a specific market responding to a consumer demand for organic products, and on the other hand delivers public goods contributing to the protection of the environment and animal welfare, as well as to rural development (EU 2007).

Aim of Organic Agriculture
The aim of organic agriculture in farming, processing, distribution and consumption is to sustain and enhance the health  of ecosystem and organisms from the smallest to human beings. The intention is to produce nutritious and high quality food that prevents diseases and contributes to well-being. As a result the use of fertilizers, pesticides, drugs and food additives that may have  adverse effects on health should avoided while producing organic foods from crops and animals.

Principles of Organic agriculture
The following principles apply to production, marketing, distribution  and consumption of organic agricultural produce and products.

The Principle of Health
The importance of organic agriculture as related to the health in farming, processing, distribution and consumption is to sustain and enhance the health of ecosystem. Health is wholesomeness and integrity of living things. It is not absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being of the living organisms and ecosystem. Thus efforts should be geared toward production of nutritious and high quality food that prevents diseases and contributes to well-being.

The principle of Ecology
Wholesomeness of ecology is based on recycling of resources  and renewal of energy. Attention should be given  to  composition, removal and restoration of nutrients through a process that will add organic matter into the soil. The process involved in crop and animal production should fit into a cycle of maintaining ecological balance. In view of this materials and energy removed from the soil must be recycled in such a way to maintain the environment, improve the quality of life and conserve resources. Farming system, processing and marketing of agricultural produce and products should be done to protect the environment (landscape, climate, habitat, biodiversity, water and air) from threats  and dangers.

The Principle of Fairness
There must be fair play at all levels and among parties (farmers, workers, processors, distributors and consumers) involved in the organic agriculture. The aim is to improve the quality of life, supply good foods and other products in addition to creating enabling  environment for wealth creation and poverty alleviation. Therefore fairness is required in all dealings from production to consumption.

The Principle of Care 
The parties involved in the in the organic farming must ensure the entire process is safe, healthy, ecologically sound and reliable. Where scientific knowledge can't offer adequate solution, traditional or indigenous knowledge should be deployed to areas it offers valid solutions.

Marketing of Organic Produce/Products
Organic produce/products are so special because of their numerous health benefits. There are special channels and procedures  for marketing organic products. The produce/products are certified while farmers and processors are expected to make the products unique through description and labelling in the open markets, supermarkets and home delivery.

Benefits of organic produce/products
1 Natural, wholesome and generally contain nutrients in the right proportions.
2 Have better tastes than convectional products.
3 Have long shelf-refers. The produce or products are firm and have tendency to stay longer than the convectional products because they contain less water per unit weight.
4 Reduce damage to the environment and preserve biodiversity.
5 Reduce nutrient loss through proper recycling of resources, water management and control of erosion.
6 Renewable and sustainable with the use of renewable materials.
7 The nutrients improve health and guard against diseases.

Organic farming can be practiced in cropping system, weed management, livestock, fisheries, pest and disease management.

In pest and disease control, the followings are practised:
* Use of plant extracts
* cultural, biological and mechanical pest and disease control
* Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Integrated Disease Management (IDM)
* Use additives approved for organic use.

Read: Soil fertility management in organic agriculture

Contact us for reliable sources of organic produce/products

Maize cultivation in Nigeria

Maize (Zea mays) is an important staple food crop and one of the mostly grown cereal crops in Nigeria. It is utilized as food for human consumption and feed for livestock industries. More than 50% of the annual maize production is used to produce animal feeds and over 200 million Nigerians are involved in the cultivation, processing and marketing of maize. Maize grain contains carbohydrates, vitamins, and some amount of proteins.

Value chain in Maize
This refers to the economic activities from the production through processing to marketing of maize. The producers, processors, marketers and consumers are involved in the value chain while the main aim is to deliver value added maize to the consumers. Market demands of value added products stimulate the need to produce, therefore all parties in the value addition must preserve the quality of the products.

Roles of actors in value addition
Input supply: Source for qualify raw materials for agricultural production, processing and trade.

Production inputs: Procurement of inputs such as seeds, chemicals and machineries and the use of suitable land and water resources.

Processing inputs: Processing machines should be efficient enough to produce good quality products.

Marketing and trade input: Materials and facilities for packaging, storing, and transportation of maize grains and products should provide protection against circumstances that may affect the quality.

Soil and climate requirements
Maize grows well in most soils and over a wide range of climatic conditions. It requires optimum level of soil fertility and adequate water for good yields. Maize may not do well if temperature is lower than 13°C but requires 480 -880mm of well distributed rainfall, or adequate water supply through irrigation. So maize can be grown in any part of the country and at any time if irrigation is practised.

Land Preparation
In the area of thick vegetation, land clearing is done by slashing the bush, uprooting and  removing the stumps. The debris should be gathered at spots to decompose and release nutrients to the soil. Do spot burning if there is need to burn some plant residues. Minimum and zero tillage can be practised to grow maize, but for higher yields the soil must be well prepared. A well prepared (ploughed and harrowed) soil will make it easier to achieve optimum plant population and increase the yields.

Methods of land preparation 
1 Manual with the use hoes
2 Mechanized with tractor coupled with plough and harrow
3 Use of animal traction

Planting Dates (under rain-fed cultivation)
* Sudan Savannah: Plant 3rd week of June to early July
* Northern Guinea Savannah: Plant between May and June
* Southern Guinea Savannah: Between late April to early June
* Forest Zones: Late February to Early March for early season maize, and between July and August for late season maize

Recommended Maize Varieties
Get the varieties that are suitable for your ecological area. Different varieties have been bred for different ecological zones. There are varieties for drought prone areas of the Sudan Savannah and Northern Guinea Savannah; Southern Guinean Savannah and the forest zones.

Seed treatment and seed rates
Maize seeds can be treated with Apron Star for protection against seed/soil borne diseases and insects. Used 10 gram for 2 - 5 kg of maize seeds. Plant 15 - 20 kg of maize seeds per hectare.

Plant spacing
There are two practices for sole maize
* 75cm X 50cm, 2 - 3 seeds per hole, to be thinned to 2 plants per stand
* 75cm X 25cm, 1 - 2 seeds per hole, to be thinned to 1 plant per stand

Fertilizer Application
Apply the first dose within the first week of planting and the second dose between 4 and 5 weeks after planting, and make sure the fertilizer is buried. Weed the farm before application of fertilizer. You can apply NPK 15:15:15, first dose of 6 bags/ha and 2nd dose of 3 bags of (50 kg) Nitrogen fertilizer per ha.

Weeding
*Preemergence weeding with Actracin + paraquat or premextra + paraquat. Apply within three days after planting and before germination.

* Post emergence chemical weeding should be done 4 - 5 weeks after planting with the use of 2,4-D Amine. This herbicide spares grass-like weeds but kill broadleaf weeds.

Harvesting
Maize can be harvested as green or fresh maize 55- 70 days after planting depending on the varieties. Harvesting can be delayed for 80 - 110 days to ensure the cobs are dried enough.

Post harvest processing
* Shelling can be done by hand  and mechanically to remove the grains from the cobs.
* Cleaning  is done manually by winnowing to blow away particles and get clean grains.

Yields 
Average yields between 2.5 and 5 tonnes per hectare is possible depending on the varieties, cultural practice and fertility of the soil.

Storage
Dry maize to 10 - 12% moisture content in order to store for long time. Grain weevils (Sitophilus spp and Tribolium spp) are the major storage insect pests.
* Treat with Actelic Dust and store in a tightly closed granary.

* Use 4 - 6 Phostoxin tablets per tonne of maize grains in air-tight container. Make sure the tablets are enclosed in envelope or other papers before putting inside the grains.

Cocoa production in Nigeria

Cocoa plant

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is a tropical crop that originated from Amazon basin where it was introduced to other countries. Cocoa tree produces pods which contain about 40 seeds or beans inside sweet tasting pulp. The beans are processed mainly into chocolate. Nigeria is ranked the fourth cocoa producing country after Ivory Coast, Ghana and Indonesia (FAO ranking 2005).


Soil requirement and Land preparation
Cocoa does well in a fertile soil with high holding capacity and pH that is close to 6.5. Few trees, especially those which don't harbour pests and diseases must be left on the site to provide shade for young cocoa plants. If possible plant residues should be left to rot on the soil, to protest the soil against erosion and provide humus into the soil.

Raising Seedlings
The seedlings are raised in the nurseries where shade, irrigation and nutrients are provided. The seeds must be collected from ripe cocoa pods and planted immediately to get good germination of at least 90% in two weeks. The seedling stem may grow to 1-2 meters and the bud may have formed 2 to 3 branches before they are transplanted.

Planting
Cocoa seeds can be sown directly in the field, but the best practice is to raise cocoa seedlings in the nursery before they are transplanted. It is better to dig holes a month before seedlings are transplanted. While digging the hole do not mix the soil at the top with the soil below. Heap the soils at different sides so that during planting the soil at the top will be used to fill the hole first.  Plant cocoa at the beginning of raining season, preferably when the soil is moist and the sky is cloudy. When lifting the lifting the seedlings from the nursery be careful not to break the tap root and do not twist it when panting as well. Direct sowing of the seeds in the field is not encouraged because of the requirement for irrigation and difficulty associated with pest and weed management.

Digging of the hole for transplanting

The seedlings can be planted after six months in a field where shade trees have been well established. The shade provides protection against wind, reduces exposure to wind and provides suitable microclimate for the young plants. Shade species which may be permanent or temporary plants and should provide food and income before cocoa trees take over. Examples of shade crops are banana or plantain and pawpaw.

Vegetative propagation can be used to raise cocoa plant where certain characteristics are desired. Vegetatively propagated trees are more uniform and performs better than tree raised from the seed but it requires specialised procedures and techniques in root cutting, budding and grafting.

Plant population depends on the tree vigour, light interception and farming system. Plant spacing of 3.1m by 3.1m is appropriate for good performance and optimum yield.

Fertilizer application
About 200 kg N, 25kg P and 300 kg K per hectare will be needed to grow the trees before they start to produce pods. Significant amounts of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium  are removed from the soil to produce pods, therefore the nutrients should be replaced for subsequent yields. The soil and leaves can be analysed to determined the level of nutrients in the soil and the requirements for fertilizer.

Pruning
Pruning is done to limit the height of the tree, reduce excessive shading and to allow adequate sunlight and increase the yields. Chupons should be continually removed to prevent jorquettes and restrict vertical growths. Fan branches may also  be pruned to prevent low hanging branches. This operation will result in having a tree that is convenient to managed. Vegetative propagated trees have a different structure and will require different management.

Harvesting
There are  two main periods of harvesting cocoa in a year, though harvesting may spread over some months as a result response of flowers to the weather. The pods can be harvested as they become ripe or harvesting can be delayed  two to three weeks when the under-ripe pods are ripe enough to be harvested together. If harvesting is delayed more than necessary the pod may rot and the beans may germinate inside the pods. Harvesting is done by hands with the use of machetes and knives while the harvested pods are cut to extract the beans.

Fermentation and Drying
Fermentation heats up the wet beans as a result of exothermic chemical reaction caused by activity of microorganisms (yeast, acetic and lactic acid bacteria). The process breaks down and drains the muscilage, thus killing the beans within 36-72 hours. Fermentation is done in heaps on the ground or in the baskets covered by plantain leaves usually for 6-7 days. The fermented beans are dried in the sun to 6-7% moisture content for storing and transporting. Dried beans are sorted or sieved to remove damaged beans and plant debris.

Cocoa beans

Cocoa ''Pod index'' expresses the number of pods required to produce 1kg of dried beans. Low pod index means good bean size and weight. ''Recover'' is the proportion of dry fermented beans to wet unfermented beans expressed as a percentage. The percentage ranges from 40% for under-ripe pods to 45% for over-ripe pods depending on the season and variety.

Cocoa beans packed in jute bags

Processing
Cocoa beans are processed in the industries to chocolate and cocoa butter while the shell is removed as a waste product.

Pests and diseases of cocoa are rats, squirrels, wood pecker, insect pests which are mirids or capsids, and cocoa pod borer;  fungi, virus, and mistletoes.

Cashew cultivation in Nigeria

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is an evergreen tropical and frost sensitive tree crop that forms large canopy and can grow to 12 metres high. It grows well in fertile sandy loam soil, requires temperature between 25 - 30 degree celsius and precipitation between 1000 and 2000mm. It is a native of Brazil and was introduced in Nigeria by Portuguese in the 16th century. The tree is mostly valued for the nuts which are mainly harvested once in a year.

Indians and Indonesian importers are the major buyers of the nut in Nigeria. They mostly buy from places where quality cashew nuts are produced in abundant quantities. Reports and observations from cashew nut production and marketing have shown that the bulk of quality cashew  nuts comes from Ogbomoso, Oyo State. The town has suitable soil and weather for cashew nut production.

Cashew varieties
There are three main varieties which are Brazilian cashew, Chinese cashew and Indian cashew. Brazilian cashew is mostly grown in Nigeria.

Land preparation and planting
After clearing of the vegetation, the land must be ploughed and harrowed. The nuts can be sowed 3 -4 per hole or raised in nursery and transplanted in the field. After the establishment the plant are thinned to one healthy and vigorous plant per stand.

Plant spacing
Two spacing methods can be adopted and these are 9m X 9m and 4.5m X 4.5m. The improved varieties start to produce fruits eighteen months after planting. The yield can't be much during the first few years but after 5 years there will be increase in the yields. Cashew can be intercropped with arable crops such as soybean, cowpea, groundnut, melons and vegetables for some years. It is not advisable to to intercrop cashew with corns because the crops can grow taller than the seedlings and cast shadows on them. The crops can also cause significant removal of soil nutrients.

Expected yields can be determined as follows:
At 18 months after planting 1kg per tree is expected, and with the spacing of 4.5m X 4.5m, 132 plant stands will produce average of 132kg per acre. Between 3 and 5 years it will produce average of 15kg per tree and 1980 kg per acre. Between 5 and 10 years it will produce average of 35kg per tree and 4620kg per acre. Above ten years a tree will produce average of 80 kg per plant. The plant population should be reduced to 9m X 9m at the end of 5 year to allow the trees to form big crowns.

Weeding
Manual and chemical weeding can be practiced. Manual weeding can be done at the seedling stage but after full establishment, herbicides can be used in the plantation. Contact herbicide is recommended, but the spray must not touch the leaves.

Flowering
Flowering and fruiting is affected by the weather condition. It takes two months from flowering to ripening of the fruit, and flowering can  continue for three months.

Harvesting
The apple must be harvested and processed immediately because it is highly perishable and gets spoilt within few hours. It can be eaten fresh or processed into juice. The nuts must be well dried in the sun before they are bagged and stored. Well dried nuts can be stored more than a year before they are shelled or sold.

The apple is very rich in nutrients, 3 times greater than orange in vitamin C. Syrup, wine and gin can also be produced from the apple. The nut kernel contains 21% vegetable protein and is as rich as milk, egg and meat in proteins, vitamins and minerals.

Shell oil or fluid is a by product that contains combination of anacardic acid and cardol. It is used in the manufacturing of materials that are resistant to heat, friction and caustic products. It is used in clutch plates, special isolators, varnish and plastic materials.

The bark of cashew tree is rich in tannin being used in leather tannin. Other parts such as leaves, fruits, wood, gum, bark and juice are used for preparation of local medicines.

Measuring quality of Cashew nut
The quality of cashew nut is measured by Kernel Outturn Ratio (KOR) which is the amount of usable kernels after shelling of the nuts. It is measured as the weight of the kernels in Ibs per bag of cashew nuts (80kg or 176 Ibs). A KOR of 48 means there are 48 Ibs (21.8 kg) of usable cashew nut kernels in a bag of 176 Ibs (80kg). KOR ranges between 20 - 24%.

Cashew nut is an export commodity and highly demanded for in the USA, Japan, Australia, Canada and some European and Middle East countries.

Facts about Vitamin A Cassava

Vitamin A cassava is variety modified to contain pro vitamin A or beta-carotene, yellowish in colour and which breaks down in the body to release vitamin A. The three varieties commonly grown in the South West are TMS01/1368, TMS01/1371, and TMS01/1412. It is part of nutrient-rich crops developed by International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to enhance nutrient requirements, increase productivity and reduce hunger in Africa.

Read: cassava cultivation

The varieties were developed to combat vitamin A deficiency (VAD) which is a serious health problem. VAD can lower immunity, impair vision, lead to blindness and cause death in children. Though vitamin A can be obtained from green leafy vegetables, yellow fruits, carrot, mango, palm oil, pawpaw and eggs, people don't get the required amount because they don't consume adequate quantities of the items. Vitamin A cassava varieties are bred to provide at least 50% of the daily need of Vitamin A.

Benefits of eating Vitamin A cassava
* Vitamin A is essential for clear vision especially    old people.
* It enhances brain development in children.
* It is essential for maintenance of pregnancy.
* It is essential for immune function.

Vitamin A cassava products are recommended for diabetic persons because they are low in starch and release nutrient into the body. The leaf of Vitamin A cassava is rich in protein, vitamin and mineral and can be cooked with egusi and served as delicacy.

*** We supply Vit A cassava cuttings ***

Cassava Farming in Nigeria

Cassava is a perennial woody shrub cultivated mainly for starchy root known as tuber. It grows well and performs better in tropical and sub tropical parts of the world. Nigeria is ranked the third largest producer of cassava in the world, producing over 40 million metric tonnes annually, followed by Brazil and Thailand, Democratic Republic of Congo and Indonesia. Cassava can grow in most soils of Nigeria, even in poor soils if water is adequately supplied and the soil is well managed with application of fertilizers. It can survive few months of drought and tolerate pests and diseases to some extent.

Soil
Cassava does well in fertile sandy loamy soil. Clay soil and stony soil are not good for cassava as they hinder root establishment. Clay soil may also retain more water than the amount required, thereby hastening rotting of tubers and causing significant loss of yields.

Land Preparation
Land preparation follows clearing of the land in preparation for planting. After slashing and stumping of woody species has been done, plant debris should be gathered for spot burning, not all over the place in order to minimize destruction of beneficial soil microbes. A well prepared soil eases establishment of roots and development of tubers. Three tillage operations: ploughing, harrowing and ridging should be done to get higher yields.

* Ploughing turns the soil over and cover weeds. It is   not advisable to plough the same piece of land      every year. Ploughing should be done once in 3-5    years.

* Harrowing pulverizes the soil by breaking and    turning bigger particles into smaller pieces.

* Ridging heaps fertile top soil and provides good    bed for root establishment. It is good for drainage  of excess water and helps to follow correct spacing  for optimum plant population.

Planting
Profitability of crop production starts from maintenance of optimum plant population. Plant population is calculated as area of land divided by spacing (area/spacing). The recommended spacing for cassava is based on the varieties and the purpose of production (stems or tubers). Varieties with tall stems can be planted 1m x 0.8m while varieties that branch close to the soil and form shades can be planted 1m x 1m.

Cassava stems should be cut with sharp cutlass, knife, secateur or saw that make the cut surface smooth. Rough cut surface reduces number of roots that can be formed, thereby reducing number of tubers per plant. Cassava cutting should be inserted into the soil in a slanting position of 45°, with 1/3 of the cutting above the surface and the buds pointing upwards. Under the condition of drought stem cuttings should be buried completely to a depth of 5cm in horizontal position.

Selection of Stem Cuttings
Yields and tolerance to pests and diseases are mostly considered in selecting varieties of cassava. There is no variety that is  resistant to a particular pest or disease, but some are more tolerant than others.

The following varieties have high yields, tolerate certain pests and diseases and will mature in twelve months:
TME 419.          30-35 ton/ha
M96/1621.        30-40ton/ha
M98/0068.        40-45ton/ha
92/0581.            30-32ton/ha
98/0505.            30-35 ton/ha
NR8082.            30-35 ton/ha
TMS 30572

Quantity needed to be planted
Cassava stem should be cut into pieces containing 5-7 nodes and 25cm long. A bundle of cassava stems containing 50 stems will give 200 cuttings if a stem of 1m long is cut into 4. If 50 bundles are required to plant 1ha at 1mx1m spacing, 10,000 stem cuttings will be used. To ensure optimum germination and growth rate cuttings should be obtained from 8-18 months old plant.

Storing Cassava Stems:
* Put cassava bundles under a shade, with the lower     portion of each stem touching the soil.
* Keep the cuttings moist and put inside a                    perforated polyethylene bag
* Cassava cuttings can also be buried in the soil for a    short period of time.

Weeding
Three weeding operations are expected to be carried out in cassava. The first should be done within three days after planting with the use of premextra (preemergence herbicide). Premextra weakens and suppresses weed seeds, thus preventing them from germination and growth for almost three months. It's use is more effective on moist soil.  Second weeding should be manual, by hands, with the use of hoes, and at about three months after planting. Third weeding should be done with the use of post emergence herbicide (contact herbicide). Systemic herbicides should be avoided in cassava. If such chemical is absorbed through the leaves or stems, the plant will be stressed and may not recover again.

Fertilizer Application
Organic and chemical fertilizers can be used for cassava. Organic fertilizers produce lasting effects in the soil because they break down after some time and release nutrients gradually. Chemical fertilizers produce rapid effects and easy to apply, but they must be used with caution. They can impair activities of soil microbes and destroy soil if used in excess.  Chemical fertilizer should be applied in ring of 10 cm radius around the plant and covered with soil or placed in a band at two sides of the plant. A small match-box full of fertilizer is enough for a stand.

* Organic fertilizers should be incorporated into the     soil 1 -2 weeks before planting.
* Use chemical fertilizers at the recommended rates:     NPK 15:15:15; NPK 12:12:12 or NPK 12:12:17 @ 4         bags (200kg)/ha
* Micro nutrients can be added to both organic and       inorganic fertilizers.

Pest and Disease Control
Pests of cassava are termites, mealy bugs, green spider mites, stem girdler, white flies, leaf rollers, termites grasshoppers and rodents and can be controlled by chemical, biological and physical methods.

Cassava diseases are cassava mosaic disease, bacteria blight, root rot and can be controlled by planting resistant varieties.

 Yield Measurement
Cassava can yield between 25 and 30 tonnes per hectare if optimum plant population is maintained and good agronomic practice is adopted. Under good environmental conditions and management yield between 2.5 and 3kg is expected from a plant stand. Therefore 10,000 plant stands in one hectare can yield 25 - 30 tonnes.

Marketing of Cassava
Demand for cassava tubers is growing as a result of increase in processing for food, animal feeds and raw materials for industries. As a result, more hectares of land are being cultivated to meet the demand. Cassava products are lafun, gari, fufu, tapioca, cassava grit ( livestock feed), High Quality Cassava Flour, HQCF (confectionery), starch (syrup, binding substance and industrial alcohol), and some other products.

*** We can supply improved varieties***
   

Marketing of Moringa Seeds

I will like to know and link producers of  moringa seeds to reliable markets within and outside the country. If you are reading this, and you know reliable markets to sell the seeds feel free to share useful information.

Moringa contains substances of great nutritional and health benefits. Analysis of the nutrients contained has shown that it's protein, vitamins, minerals, oil and other phytochemicals are unmatched for most crops. It's leaf has been discovered to be richer than fluted pumpkin (Ugwu), orange, carrots and other vegetables in terms of certain nutrients.


It is now over three years when the campaign to increase moringa production started in the country, esp the South West. Many farmers have grown moringa and the crop is performing very well in most places. The plant is fast growing and adapts to varying environmental conditions. Due to these characteristics the plant has yielded biomass larger than what many crops have produced at a time. In fact this observation makes me believe that moringa is indeed a tree of life.


From abundance of leaves to high fruit and seed yields the plant has so many things to offer: food and forest products, employment and income, boundary demarcation, reclamation of soils from erosion and management of soil fertility. As numerous as moringa benefits are, farmers are yet to tap the full benefits and grow the crop for sustainable income.


Moringa seed production has gradually increased from few kilograms to some tonnes annually in the country but the problem now is what to do with the seeds and other parts. Are there industries processing tonnes of moringa seeds daily? If there are such industries, moringa-based markets should be opened up to sell the seeds in large quantities, and If the markets already exist, producers should be given the right information and linked to reliable buyers for steady supply of the seeds.


For instance, I have been trying to identify buyers and link them to the producers  to promote fast selling and prevent wastage of the seeds. If this piece can go a long way to identify reliable markets, producers will be linked and guaranteed steady income over increased production. Buyers should pls indicate their interest so that we can work together.